On the other hand, the present territories of the Cossacks of the Don and Uralsk represent but a small portion of the huge "Free Steppes" over which their ancestors established their control. Indeed, the vague boundaries of these holdings were only "confirmed" when the advance of non-Cossack pioneers made such an act necessary. The policy vigorously maintained by the imperial government was that of granting land in the neighbourhood of Cossack outposts only in return for military service. The system adopted — even during the closing years of the empire — did not differ materially from that employed by the early Tsars. Moreover,
in order to foster the community spirit, all land ceded by the Russian crown to the different Cossack "armies" was to be held rigorously in common. This principle with certain modifications brought about by the passing of the "frontier conditions" (notably in the Don region) underlies the system of Cossack land tenure to the present day. Each adult male Cossack "soul" is entitled to the use of 30 dessiatines (about 75 acres) of agricultural land. These allotments may be re-distributed yearly, and the quantity increased, if local conditions (such as the quality of the land) make such a step desirable. The areas set aside for "military purposes" are used for forestry, and horsebreeding, and as a reserve for the future needs of the community.
Under the former imperial regime, the administration of the Cossack "armies" was placed directly under the ministry of war, where a special "Chancellery" had charge of all matters affecting this class of citizens. A special "Committee of the Cossack armies" aided the Chancellery in its decisions, and all questions both of civil and military character were decided by these two organizations. While in theory elective, the members of this advisory committee were formerly in reality appointed by the Minister of War. One of the first acts of the various Cossack congresses which ratified the change to a republican form of government was to provide for a popular and representative
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membership of this important body. The principal Cossack armies, viz.: Don, Uralsk, Terek, Kouban, Orenbm-g and Astrakhan, have each one permanent representative on this committee, while the smaller Cossack commmiities of Western and Eastern Siberia have each one delegate.
The head of each "army" preserves the ancient title of ataman, an ofRce usually uniting the militar\^ and ci'val duties of a governor-general. At the head of each stanitza — which usually comprises from one to four \illages according to the size of their population — is placed a stanitzi ataman, who is responsible for the general order. Out of respect for Cossack particularism, each stanitza in theory became an administrative unit enjoying the fullest autonomy.
The actual government in most of these communities is generally exercised by a council of Cossack elders, generally men past military age, whose patriarchal decisions are respected by all. This council or shor is responsible to a stanitza gathering in which all the Cossack heads of families are represented. In view, however, of the increasing population and the unwieldy proportions which these gatherings attained in many of the larger stanitzi the old principle of the obshi kroug, i.e., the "Circle of All," is generally limited to communities not exceeding twenty or thirtj' families. In the larger communities a representative system has been adopted based on the universal suffrage of men over twenty-five years of age. Decisions must be reached in all important affairs by the vote of at least a two-thirds majority.
In the Cossack stanitzi non-Cossacks, or "persons not of the military class," are permitted to live on the payment of certain dues to the community, but without the right to vote or hold office. (Jews were formerly rigorously excluded from the enjoyment of this privilege.)
Cossacks have the same fondness for cattle raising and other pastoral pursuits noticeable in the inhabitants of nearly all new countries. Like the true "cowboy" of the Far West — with whom he has much in common — the Cossack will only put his hand to the plow when driven to it by the sternest necessity. Although in many parts of the Cossack country the soil of the steppes is surpassingly rich, the rigours of a continental climate are felt with especial severity. In these vast almost treeless plains droughts, floods and other climatic extremes are enemies of the Cossack husbandmen.